Punctuation Refresher

PUNCTUATION REFRESHER

Like I mentioned in the grammar refresher, punctuation is not the single most important element of writing effectively.  However, bad punctuation can not only cause your meaning to be muddy and unclear, but it can also flat out change your meaning.  For example, a comma in the wrong place can completely change the meaning of your sentence. What follows is a review of correct punctuation.

• Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Marks

• We all know, of course, the basic function of a period—it ends a sentence.  We also use them in abbreviations, decimals, and initials.  They are also frequently used in a very precise format for internet addresses.
• A question mark, you already know, is used to indicate an interrogative sentence.  You place question marks after a direct question.
• An important point to know is how to correctly place question marks when using direct quotations.  Question marks go inside the quotation marks when the quotation asks the question and outside the quotation marks when the full sentence poses the question.
• An exclamation mark differs from a period or question mark In that it ends an urgent, excited, or emotional sentence.
• An important point to know about exclamation marks it that you should really limit their use in formal writing.  It is best to find verbs that emphasize or express excitement rather than using this style of punctuation.

• Semicolons and Colons

• Semicolon:  One of the most abused types of punctuation is the semicolon.  It is often not used correctly, or it is not used when it should be.  There are very specific ways that a semicolon can be used to join elements in a sentence.

• Independent clauses without conjunctions
• You may join two independent clauses (these can stand alone and are complete sentences) with a semicolon.  The best use of a semicolon in this instance is if the second independent clause is closely connected to the first one.  Later we will discuss how to use a semicolon in this instance to avoid what is called a comma splice.  Here are some examples:
• I needed milk; I went to the store to get more.
• In the above sentence, the second independent clause is directly related to the first one.  I could also use a period here and make two sentences, or I could use a comma with a coordinating conjunction, like "so".
• I needed milk, so I went to the store to get more.
• My family lives in Denver; I'm glad the conference is there so I can see them.
• Here is an example of when a semicolon would not be the most effective way to join independent clauses as the following two sentences are not closely connected:
• I love the movie Jurassic Park; I want to see the new Julia Roberts movie.
• Independent clauses with conjunctive adverbs
• You will use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second begins with what is called a conjunctive adverb (like however, moreover, therefore, nevertheless, thus.)  Additionally transitional phrases such as for example will also require a semicolon before them when they are the second independent clause.  Here are some examples:
• I tried to tell him I wanted to break up; however, he wouldn't take me seriously.
• I tried to teach them about the finer points of the English language; for example, we discussed the correct use of the semicolon at length.
• Items in subdivided lists
• This use of the semicolon also frequently gets used and abused.  We separate items in a list particularly to avoid confusion when some items are already separated by commas.  Here is an example:
• I went to the conference with my manager, Tina; my friends, Jack and Jill; and Barbara and Steve, my coworkers.

• Colons:  presents specific details (:)

• Use a colon to introduce a list, a series, or a formal or long quotation.  Here are some examples:
• I gave him a grocery list of items I needed: strawberries, milk, bread, and pop.
• My granddad's favorite expression was repeated every morning: "God helps those who help themselves."  I always thought rebelliously that God helps the helpless.
• Use a colon to connect two independent clauses only when the first clause explains or illustrates the first. Here is an example:
• I prayed and prayed for an answer to my dilemma and finally got a response: they offered me a job.
• Use a colon after a clause to provide a one-word example:
• I worked and worked and only kept going because I knew what my reward would be: rest.
• Here are some other uses you might see for a colon:
• In a formal letter or a memo after a salutation (or greeting):
• Dear Mr. President:
• To: The President of the United States
• In a book title (separates the main title from the subtitle):
• Hell Hath No Fury: A Woman's Revenge
• To separate the chapter and verse of Bible verses or in bibliographic sources (in most formats)
• Genesis 1:1
• Blau, Susan, and Kathryn Burak.  Writing in the Works. 2^nd ed.  Boston:  Wadsworth, 2010.  Print.
• And of course you are familiar with its use in divisions of time:
• I have to get up at 5:30 a.m. when I'm teaching.

• Commas, Dashes, and Parenthesis

• Commas

• As mentioned above, a comma in the wrong place can change the meaning of a whole sentence.  This is because a comma's job is to clarify relationships within a sentence.  Here are some ways commas are used correctly:
• Lists:  Use commas between items in a list, including before the "and".
• I love students who are responsible, timely, and honest.
• Coordinate Adjectives: Use a comma between coordinate adjectives.  (These modify the same noun):
• Jared was a responsible, honest student.
• Introductory phrases: one of the most comma errors I see is students not using commas in this way.  You must use a comma after an introductory phrase of a dependent clause.  Consider these examples:
• To ensure I had the best chance for the job, I dressed professionally.
• After we went to the store, I prepared an elaborate dinner.
• Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions in a compound sentence.  (A helpful teacher once referred to these by the acronym "fanboys" which stuck with me: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.)
• Jared was a really honest student, so I didn't mind letting him make up the test.
• Use commas around nonrestrictive or nonessential clauses.  In other words, if the clause can be taken out of the sentence without confusing the meaning of the sentence, commas go around the clauses; however, if the meaning would be changed, the commas need to be avoided.  Here is an example of each instance:
• Nonrestrictive:  Jared, who has red hair, works very hard.
• Restrictive:  Jared who needs a scholarship works very hard.
• Here's an important tip:  the relative pronoun which always introduces a nonessential clauses, so commas always will go around a which clause.  For example:
• The conference, which I had to pay eighty dollars for, was spectacular. Vs.
• The conference that I attended was crucial to my work
• Participial and Appositive phrases : use commas around them.  These modify nouns or pronouns by describing them in different words.
• Jared, having worked as hard as he could, earned his scholarship. (participial)
• Jared, the best student she'd ever had, graduated in the spring. (appositive)
• Interrupters and Attributions:  use commas around phrases that interrupt a sentence and around attributions in quotations.
• Other students, however well-intentioned they may be, can't seem to perform as well as Jared.
• "I'm proud of Jared," the instructor said proudly, and she showed the class his work.
• Use commas to help your reader avoid confusion and provide clarity.
• To his classmates, Jared was a teacher's pet.
• Commas can also be used in the following ways:
• In openings and closings of letters
• Dear Jen,
• Sincerely,
• In direct address
• Jared, are you listening?
• In addresses and names of geographical places
• I am originally from Denver, Colorado.
• To separate a name from a degree or title and with Jr. and Sr.
• Martin Luther King, Jr., changed the course of history.
• At the conference I heard Beth Jennings, P.H.D.
• In dates
• October 10, 1071
• With figures with more than four digits
• $5,244.00

• Dashes: used sometimes instead of commas.  This creates a less formal tone.

• Surprise and irony: use a dash to create a sense of surprise or signal an ironic comment
• I told them that I wasn't mad about the practical jokes—but they needed to watch their backs.

• Parentheses: can be used in the following ways:

• Explanatory Materials
• Use parentheses around explanatory materials like so:  I disliked some of her personality traits (her aggression, her gossipy nature, and her paranoia), but overall I thought she was a kind person.
• Lists within Sentences
• He demanded she change three things: (1) her dislike of his best friend, (2) her distrust of his fidelity, and (3) her disdain for beer.
• Asides
• Josh Stanos (my ex-boyfriend) was recently released on parole.

• Apostrophes and Hyphens: we use an apostrophe in both contractions and possessives.

• Apostrophes

• Possessives: nouns or indefinite pronouns
• Singular nouns: Dr. Perrin's class was always fascinating.
• Plural nouns: The students got to critique all the instructors' classes.
• Compound nouns: Her mother-in-law's doctor called to report.
• Two or more nouns: with two or more nouns in a sentence showing ownership, you only place the apostrophe on the last noun to show joint ownership; however, if it is individual ownership, each noun will have an apostrophe.
• Roman and Melissa's car quit working suddenly.
• Austin's and Taylor's classes were very difficult.
• Contractions:  use an apostrophe to replace the letter or letters deleted in a contraction.
• do not (don't), that is (that's), It is (it's)

• Hyphens:  these can be used in the following ways

• Compound modifiers:  can be used to punctuate compound modifiers that work together
• My two-year-old nephew is so adorable.
• Compound words
• I frequently want to pull out my hair around my mother-in-law.
• Prefixes and suffixes
• The most commonly used prefixes are ex-, pro-, self-, and neo-.  A common suffix is –elect.
• Other uses
• When typing a document, you may need to use a hyphen at the end of a line to divide a word between syllables
• Written fractions contain hyphens (one-fourth)
• In numbers (from twenty-one to ninety-nine)

• Ellipses, Brackets, and Quotation Marks

• Ellipses can be very helpful in a rhetorical grammar sense.  They can be used for omissions that you intentionally make and to show hesitancy in your writing.

• One of my favorite sonnets that Shakespeare wrote starts "Love is not love which alters when it alteration finds . . . oh no, it is an ever fixed mark." (This sentence leaves out a portion of the quote.)
• Sabrina said, "Tim, don't go...just stay a while".

• Brackets are often misused. They can be used in the following ways:

• In quotations, use square brackets to indicate that you have personally added your own words (usually to clarify) in quote passages: My mom said, "It's just as well that she [Debbie] is gone.
• You can also use square brackets to insert words to make a quotation understandable or grammatical:  My mom was angry that she [Debbie] has stolen from us.
• Some teachers may ask you to use angle brackets in email addresses and URLs:  You can reach Mrs. McCoy on the faculty portal at <http://www.clarendoncollege.edu> or by emailing her at <Melissa.mccoy@clarendoncollege.edu>.

• Quotation marks can be used the following ways:

• Direct quotations: you must use quotation marks around all the other material that is directly borrowed from other sources or to indicate someone's words in dialogue.
• Titles:  You will use quotation marks to show titles of magazine articles, television episodes, poems, short stories, songs, and other short works.  (When you are talking about titles of longer works, like newspapers, magazines, novels, films, television shows, and anthologies, italics are used instead.)
• Single quotation marks:  when you are using a quotation within a quotation, you use a single quotation mark around the quotation within.
• Other punctuation
• Commas and periods always go inside quotation marks.
• Question marks and exclamation marks go inside the quotation marks when the quoted material is a question or an exclamation and outside the quotation marks when the whole sentence is a question or an exclamation.
• Who said, "Help me"? (whole sentence is a question)
• Jared said, "I did!" (The exclamation is the quoted material.)

• Capital Letters, Numbers, and Italics

• I am not going to spend time reviewing capital letters, but if you have questions, please check the textbook for the correct way to use them.  College writers should simply not make mistakes here. 
• One thing I will say is that in academic writing, you need to spell out numbers from one through ninety-nine and use numerals for 100 and higher.  Also, numbers that start sentences should always be spelled out.  Use numerals for page and chapter numbers, for percentages, and for addresses and dates.
• Finally, Italics or underlining are used in the following situations:
• Titles: use italics on the computer and underlining in handwriting for titles of long works like books, newspapers, magazines, journals, movies, and plays.
• Foreign words: use italics (on the computer) and underlining (handwriting) to set off foreign words.

This is the end of our review for now.    The next thing we will review is a document on common errors in grammar and punctuation.  Watch for it!